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In emulation learning, subjects learn about parts of their environment and use this to achieve their own goals. Observational learning (sometimes called social learning) is based primarily on the work of Albert Bandura.〔http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/soccog/soclrn.html〕 First coined by child psychologist David Wood in 1988.〔Wood, D. 1988. How children think and learn. London: Basil Blackwell.〕 In 1990〔Tomasello, M. 1990. Cultural transmission in the tool use and communicatory signaling of chimpanzees? In: "Language" and intelligence in monkeys and apes: Comparative developmental perspectives (Ed. by Parker, S. T. & Gibson, K. R.), pp. 274-311. New York, NY, USA: Cambridge University Press.〕 “emulation” was taken up by Michael Tomasello to explain the findings of an earlier study on ape social learning.〔Tomasello, M., Davis-Dasilva, M., Camak, L. & Bard, K. 1987. Observational learning of tool use by young chimpanzees. Human evolution, 2, 175-183.〕 The meaning of the term emulation has changed gradually since. Emulation is a form of observational learning, different from imitation, which focuses on the action's environmental results instead of a model's action. Simpler form of observational learning is expected to have profound implications for its capacity for cultural transmission. Emulation produces only fleeting fidelity compared with the opportunity to copy a conspecific, when considerable conformity is displayed even with a simple task. This was observed through a study, ghost-conditions, in chimpanzees and children.〔Hopper, Lydia; Lambeth, Susan; Schapiro,Steven; Whiten, Andrew. (2008). "Observational Learning in Chimpanzees and Children Studied through 'Ghost' Conditions". Proceedings: Biological Sciences. 275(1636):835-840〕 ==History of the term== In the original version, emulation referred to observers understanding objects in their potential to help them achieve desired results. They gained this understanding by seeing demonstrators achieving these very results with these objects. The actions performed by the demonstrators however were not copied, so it was concluded that observers learn “from the demonstration, that the tool may be used to obtain the food” (Tomasello et al., 1987). In 1996,〔Tomasello, M. 1996. Do apes ape? In: Social learning in animals: The roots of culture (Ed. by Heyes, C. M. & Galef, B. G., Jr.), pp. 319-346. San Diego, CA, USA: Academic Press, Inc.〕 Tomasello redefined the term: “The individual observing and learning some affordances of the behavior of another animal, and then using what it has learned in devising its own behavioral strategies, is what I have called emulation learning. () an individual is not just attracted to the location of another but actually learns something about the environment as a result of its behavior”. An even later definition further clarifies: “In emulation learning, learners see the movement of the objects involved and then come to some insight about its relevance to their own problems.”.〔Boesch, C. & Tomasello, M. 1998. Chimpanzee and human cultures. Current Anthropology, 39, 591-614.〕 Here animals learn some physics or causal relations of the environment. This does not necessarily involve a very complex understanding of abstract phenomena (as to what defines a “tool as a tool”). Emulation comprises a large span of cognitive complexity, from minimal cognitive complexity to very complex levels 〔Custance, D. M., Whiten, A. & Fredman, T. 1999. Social learning of an artificial fruit task in capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 113, 13-23.〕 Emulation was originally invented as a “cognitivist’s alternative” to associative learning (Tomasello, 1999), spanning learning about how things function and their “affordances” 〔Tomasello, M. 1999. Emulation learning and cultural learning. Behavioural and Brain Sciences, 21, 703-704.〕 put to the use of achieving ones own goals: “Emulation learning in tool-use tasks seems to require the perception and understanding of some causal relations among objects” .〔Call, J. & Tomasello, M. 1995. Use of social information in the problem solving of orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus) and human children (Homo sapiens). Journal of Comparative Psychology, 109, 308-320.〕 This necessarily involves some “insight” - a cognitive domain. To further highlight this point Call & Carpenter wrote in 2001:〔Call, J. & Carpenter, M. 2001. Three sources of information in social learning. In: Imitation in Animals and artifacts (Ed. by Dautenkahn, K.): MIT Press.〕 “it would be a harder task to teach robots to emulate than it is already to teach them to imitate”. Albert Bandura formulated his findings in a four-step pattern which combines a cognitive view and an operant view of learning, based on attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation.〔http://www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/soccog/soclrn.html〕 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Emulation (observational learning)」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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